Biochemistry+notes

Student-created notes for the biochemistry unit  Oct 3 Biology 59 notes, Biochem review by Isabella:



**Thursday, October 6, 2011**

 * //(__Intro to Cellular Processes__ Notes are under the Metabolic Processes Notes)//**

**__Lab reports__**
- double-spaced - font: anything serif, 12pt - abstract: long and detailed - tables: descriptive titles - __references:__
 * shouldn't have vertical lines
 * if online source, include date accessed
 * eg.: Enzymes are molecules that make you grow taller (1).

1. Dawson, K. (2010). "Biology lab reports." From (indent) [|www.bestsubject.com] Accessed on October 5, 2011. eg. The students were bored, however, Kate needed to teach one more thing. However many times she told them, they still made that mistake. - don't number the title page - center the title both ways - it can have a small, relevant picture if you want - no underlining titles __Format:__ Title Your name Partner: (their name) Teacher: Kate Dawson SBI4U Experiment performed on October 3, 2011 - repeat full title at the top (can be bolded) - header: last name pg.# - subtitle each section, left aligned, bold Example: (indent) Enzymes are...
 * for textbook: [(name of the first author) //et// //al//]
 * minimum 2 references
 * don't use contractions or "you"
 * if you make a mistake, put a //single// //line// through it and initial
 * when making a new paragraph: indent or skip line
 * numbers: up to and under 10 is written but anything more is number such as two and 36
 * you can use "&"
 * reference should be closer to the bottom of the page, if there isn't any room then next page
 * "however" shouldn't start a sentence - it joins 2 parts of a sentence or can come after a semi-colon
 * __Title page:__
 * __Page(s) after title page:__
 * Abstract**


 * Biology 59 Class Notes by Allie (more to come soon promise it's just really long) **
 * Date:** Wednesday, September 28, 2011
 * Unit:** Biochemistry
 * Topics:** 1.4 Enzymes
 * Text reference:** pgs. 69-77


 * __Main Topic:__**


 * __Definitions/ Vocabulary:__**

Substrate: the reactant that an enzyme acts on when it catalyzes a chemical reaction

Active Site: the location where the substrate binds to an enzyme

Induced-fit Model: a model of enzyme activity that describes an enzyme as a dynamic protein molecule that changes shape to better accommodate the substrate

Enzyme-Substrate Complex: an enzyme with its substrate attached to the active site

Cofactors: nonprotein components, such as dissolved ions, that are needed for enzymes to function

Coenzymes: organic nonprotein cofactors that are needed for some enzymes to function

Competitive Inhibitors: substances that compete with the substrate for an enzyme’s active site

Noncompetitive Inhibitors: substances that attach to a binding site on an enzyme other than the active site, causing a change in the enzyme’s shape and a loss of affinity for its substrate

Allosteric Sites: receptor sites, some distance from the active site of certain enzymes, that bind substances that may inhibit or stimulate an enzyme’s activity

Activator: a substance that binds to an Allosteric site on an enzyme and stabilizes the protein conformation that keeps all the active sites available to their substrates

Allosteric Inhibitor: a substance that binds to an Allosteric site on an enzyme and stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme

Feedback Inhibition: a method of metabolic control in which a product formed later in a sequence of reactions allosterically inhibits an enzyme that catalyzes a reaction occurring earlier in the process

__A Model of Enzyme Activity__
 * __Summary/ Notes:__**
 * Enzymes are protein catalysts in tertiary or quaternary structure with complex conformations
 * Proteins at high temperatures are denatured and lose their function
 * Catalysts allow reactions to proceed at suitable rates at moderate temperatures by reducing the activation energy (EA)
 * The catalyst doesn’t effect the free energy ( ∆ G) of a reaction
 * The substrate binds to a particle site on the enzyme to which it is attracted
 * Enzymes are very specific for the substrate to which they bind
 * Most cases, they will not bind isomers of their substrate
 * Names on enzymes usually end in –//ase//
 * An enzyme-catalyzed reaction is usually written with the name of the enzyme over the arrow
 * in an enzyme catalyzed reaction, the substrate binds to a very small portion of the enzyme
 * the location where the substrate binds to the enzyme is called the active site, and is usually a pocket or groove in the 3-D structure of the protein
 * substrate and the active site must have compatible shapes for bonding to occur
 * when the substrate enters the active site, its functional groups come close to the functional groups of a number of amino acids
 * the interactions b/w these chemical groups cause the protein to change its shape, which accommodates the substrate better ( Induced-fit model of enzyme-substrate interaction)
 * the attachment of the substrate to the enzyme’s active site creates the enzyme-substrate complex


 * the active site may provide an acidic environment in an otherwise neutral part of the cell
 * enzyme-catalyzed reactions can be saturated
 * limited number of specific enzyme molecules in a cell at any one time
 * the speed at which a catalyzed reaction proceeds can’t increase indefinitely by increasing the concentration of the substrate
 * enzyme-catalyzed reactions increase in speed with an increase in temperature
 * if temperature increases beyond a critical point, thermal agitation begins to disrupt protein structure, resulting in denaturation and loss of enzyme function
 * every enzyme has an optimal temperature of 37°C (normal body temperature)
 * enzymes in certain species of archaebacteria work best at or above 100°C
 * enzymes also have an optimal pH in which they work best
 * digestive enzyme pepsin works best in the acidic environment of the stomach pH 2
 * digestive enzyme trypsin has an optimal pH of 8
 * some enzymes require either nonprotein cofactors or coenzymes before the can work properly
 * these may bind to the active site with covalent bonds, or they may bind weakly with the substrate

Videos: []
 * __Related Topics:__**


 * Hand-backs:** Biochemistry quiz #1
 * Heads-up:** macromolecules detection lab due tomorrow


 * Biology 59 Class Notes by Katie S**
 * Date:** Tuesday September 27, 2011
 * Unit:** Biochemistry
 * Topics:** Movement of Water Across a Membrane, lab questions and marking scheme

Osmosis is a type of simple diffusion.

Is energy required? **No** Is a transport protein required? **No**

Osmosis: **The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane, such as the cell membrane**

Selectively permeable: **A membrane that controls the passage of substances through it**

Although water molecules are not **lipid** soluble, they are small and can apparently fit through the gaps in the phospholipid bilayer. Water will move in or out of the cell based on the concentration of **water** vs. **solute**.

There are three types of solution:

1. **Hypertonic** solution: higher concentration **outside** the cell, water moves **out** by osmosis result: cell shrivels (**plasmalysed/ flaccid**) 2. **Isotonic** solution: concentration of solute inside and outside the cells is **equal**. Water always moves, but there is no **net** movement. 3. **Hypotonic** solution: higher concentration of solute **inside** the cell, water moves **in** by osmosis. result: cell swells, becomes **turgid** (in plants), may **burst** (in animals)

another explanation of osmosis: []

Should be answered in paragraph format. 1. Why are these tests useful? (/2) 2. What is the purpose of testing water? (/2) 3. Name one possible source of error for each of your two tests, and explain how it may have affected your results. (/4)
 * Lab:**
 * Analysis questions:**

(/5) Abstract (macromolecules, indicators, importance, etc.) [this can be put in the conclusion this time] (/2) Procedure (present tense) (/4) Data/ Qualatative observations (for both tests) (/8) Analysis (answer questions in paragraph form) (/2) Conclusions (sum up what was revealed, etc.) (/3) Format (/2) APA reference (at least one) (/2) Spelling/ grammer (/2) Pre-lab work (due Tuesday September 27) _ ** Biology 59 Class Notes **** by Ellen ** ** Date: ** Monday, September 26, 2011 ** Unit: ** Biochemistry ** Topics: ** Macromolecules Quiz and The Cell Membrane ** Text reference: ** Great membrane diagram on p. 791
 * Marking Scheme:**

The cell membrane controls what enters & leaves a cell. It's made of:

A) A phospholipid bilayer The model used to explain a membrane's makeup is called the fluid mosaic model. 'Fluid' means its parts are free to move and not fixed or rigid. 'Mosaic' means many small pieces, see B-D.

B) Cholesterol Stabilizes cell membrane Made of 4 fused hydrocarbon rings

C) Proteins Various functions, namely:
 * Structural support, may be attached to cytoskeleton
 * Cell recognition
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Communication - can receive travelling molecules
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Transport - stuff can pass through some of them

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">D) Glycocalyx <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Chains of carbohydrates sticking out, used for cell identification

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">**Homework:** Prepare lab notebook for tomorrow's lab <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">**Handouts:** Lab Notebook format sheet & Cells and Cell Structures Notes package. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">**Hand-backs:** Lab write-ups <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">**Heads-up:** Test next Wednesday (October 5th)

Started with quiz review, asking each other questions from Q-cards.
 * Biology 59 Class Notes **** by Natasha W **
 * Date: ** Wednesday, September 22, 2011
 * Unit: ** Biochemistry
 * Topic: ** 1. Lab Play Day

Then we had a lab play day, to experiment in order to create a lab for the macromolecules, which will be carried out Tuesday September 27, 2011. The indicators for each of the topics are: Simple Sugars --> Benedict’s reagant Starch --> Iodine solution Protein --> Biuret solution Fat --> Stain on brown paper By testing different foods with these indicators, different reactions will occur either being positive or negative results. Positive results indicate that the sample that is being tested contains a simple sugar, starch, protein or fat. Materials, procedure and expected results will be documented and handed into Kate by Friday. This way she can edit them and ensure that everyone is ready to go for the Lab Tuesday.

- Identify (naming) macromolecules, their sub units, and functions - Recognize and label diagrams - Describe how water affects certain macromolecules - Name the bonds and how they are formed - Health effects (ex. Saturated fat vs. Unsaturated fat, fibre)
 * Biology 59 Class Notes **** by Yi **
 * Date: ** Wednesday, September 21, 2011
 * Unit: ** Biochemistry
 * Topic: ** 1. Quiz format 2. Biological Molecules Lab
 * Textbook reference: ** p.27-57
 * Main idea **
 * __ 1. Short answer questions: you should be able to __**

- Show a __reaction between__ molecules. /2
 * __Sample Questions__**
 * - ** Name a macromolecule; give its subunit and 2 functions. /3

(Name bond, redraw and state the name of reaction and name of molecules) - Name and label this _ molecule.

__**2. Lab procedure**__ - Each group will test two of the following: simple sugars, starch, lipids, or protein - Thursday is the “lab play day” which people can try out indicators and design the lab __**Procedure requirements**__ - List materials needed for each lab - one procedure for each lab (each molecule) - your expected positive and negative results - Procedure due time: FRIDAY 10AM FOR MARKS - distilled water ànegative control (no reaction) -clear, stepwise, detailed -bring 2 more food items (You may not have time to test a lot of items) -One group must submit one copy of both labs
 * notes*

Please go to “Review” to check out review questions and summary sheets for macromolecules quiz on Monday September 26th, 2011.
 * Related diagrams/links/videos **

September, 20 2011
 * Biology 59 Class Notes**

Text book reference: Page 52
 * Date:** Tuesday, September 20, 2011
 * Unit:** Biochemistry
 * Topic:** DNA

Nucleic Acids are the information macromolecules which store hereditary information, determines structural and functional characteristics.
 * Main Topic**

Antiparallel: describes two adjacent nucleotide polymers running in opposite directions relative to one another. Phosphediester Bonds: the bonds between the fifth carbon, phosphate group and third carbon.
 * Vocabulary/Definitions**


 * Summary/Notes:**
 * Three parts; phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar, nitrogen base
 * DNA stores organisms genetic information, directs cell to create protiens, has 4 bases adenine, cytosine, thymine, and guanine.
 * DNA is “deoxy” because it does not have an OH on carbon 2 while RNA does.
 * DNA’s structure double helix held together by hydrogen bonds




 * RNA transfers genetic information within the cell and has the structure of a single helix. It does this to save energy because it does not need to be double stranded
 * In RNA uracil replaces thymine
 * ATP is a modified nucleotide and is the energy molecule of the cell

So this link is about evidence that supports the threoy that part of our DNA comes for space. Its pretty neatooo :) __[]__
 * Related Topics**

__<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 14pt;">September 19 notes by Rejy __ **<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Date: Monday, September 19, 2011 ** **<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Unit: Biochemistry ** **<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Topic: Proteins ** **<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Textbook reference: p.40 - 48 **
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Biology 59 Class Notes **

**<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Main idea ** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">Proteins are the most diverse molecules found in living organisms that serve as structural building blocks.

**<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Vocabulary/definitions ** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">amino acids – building blocks of proteins <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">essential amino acids – amino acids that the body cannot synthesize from simpler compounds; they must be obtained from the diet <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">peptide bonds –the amide linkage that holds amino acids together in polypeptides <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">polypeptide –polymer of amino acids

**<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Summary/notes ** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">Proteins <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">–50% of dry mass of most cells <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">-examples : keratin (in hair) ; collagen (in tendons, bones, skin, etc.) ; haemoglobin (in red blood cells) ; enzymes (biological catalysts) ; immunoglobins/antibodies ; parts of the cell membrane <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">-Structure of amino acid

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">-**“AMPHIPROTIC”** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">-acidic (carboxyl -) & basic (amino+)

-R group : side chain of amino acid ; determines an amino acid’s properties <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">-20 amino acids in total à <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;"> 8 are “essential” <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">-Amino acids are built into chains, linked with peptide bonds forming a polypeptide <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">-Condensation reaction between amino group (H) of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of the next (OH)

**<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">-4 Levels of structure ** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">- **primary structure :** the unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">-**secondary structure :** coils and folds in a polypeptide caused by hydrogen bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms near the peptide bonds



<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">- **<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">tertiary structure : **<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">supercoiling of a polypeptide that is stabilized byside-chain interactions, including covalent bonds, such as disulphide bridges

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">-**quaternary structure :** two or more polypeptide subunits forming a functional protein

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 120%;">-Chaperone proteins : special proteins that aid a polypeptide to fold

**<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Related diagrams/links/videos ** <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">[]

ate :Friday, September 16, 2011 Unit:Biochemisrty Topic: Macromolecules

I found a pretty cool website that i think sums up macromolecules pretty good, and ends with review questions. Check it out http://biology.unm.edu/ccouncil/Biology_124/Summaries/Macromol.html

Protein visualization site: [] Link shown in class (alpha helices and beta pleated sheets): [] Sept. 15 Notes by KEVIN LAU


 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 16pt;">Biology 59 Class Notes **
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Date: Wednesday, September 15, 2011 **
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Unit: Biochemistry **
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Topic: Lipids **
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Textbook reference: p. 35-39 **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">1. Fats <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">2. Steroids <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">3. Waxes <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">4. Phospholipids
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Main ideas **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Hydrophobic –lack of affinity for water; tendency to repel and not absorb water <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Hydrophilic – to have a strong affinity for water and a tendency to dissolve in, mix with or absorb water <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Amphipathic – describes a molecule containing both polar and non-polar regions in their structure <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Alcohol – any organic compound in which a hydroxyl functional group is bound to a carbon atom and is usually connected to other carbon or hydrogen atoms
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Vocabulary/definitions **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">1. Fats <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- used for long-term energy storage <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- highly concentrated energy source due to large number of carbon-hydrogen bonds <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- provides warmth; cushions and protects internal organs <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- are all mostly all hydrophobic
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Summary/Notes **



<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Note that the saturated fatty acid molecule has the maximum number of carbon-bonds. <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">The CARBOXYL group on the far left on both molecules is comprised of a carbon double bonded to an oxygen and single bonded to a HYDROXYL group (otherwise known as hydroxide [-OH]).

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">This diagram illustrates the condensation reaction by which three fatty acid chains (right) are being bonded to the one glycerol molecule (right) via a carbon-oxygen bond.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">Note that the carbon on the end of the fatty acid chains will form a single bond with the oxygen on the glycerol molecule. This bond is known as an ESTER LINKAGE; bonding process known as esterification.


 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">2. Phospholipids **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- main component of cell membrane

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- made of glycerol, 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Fatty acids are NONPOLAR and are therefore HYDROPHOBIC <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Phosphate group is highly POLAR and is therefore HYDROPHILIC <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Glycerol joins fatty acids and phosphate group together -->

<span style="color: black; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;">

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">- <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">in a membrane, the phospholipids act to exclude water and other polar/ionic materials <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- phospholipids are amphipathic

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- made of 4 fused carbon rings <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- examples include cholesterol and sex hormones (progesterone, estrogen and testosterone) <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- vitamin D and bile salts are broken down from cholesterol for use in the body
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">3. Steroids **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- long chains of fatty acids linked to alcohols or carbon rings <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">- hydrophobic and are therefore good for waterproofing and preventing infection
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif;">4. Waxes **

-- Hey guys i made this chart in class today. thought it might help:D

September 14 Notes by KEVIN LAU.

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">1. What are Carbohydrates? <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">2. About Saccharides <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">3. Functions and Use <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Glycosidic Linkages: type of covalent bond bonding saccharides together to form other complex saccharides; bonds are formed through a condensation or dehydration synthesis reaction
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Biology 59 Class Notes **
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Date: Tuesday, September 14, 2011 **
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Unit: Biochemistry **
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Topic: Carbohydrates **
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Textbook reference: p. 29-34 **
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Main ideas **
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Vocabulary/definitions **

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">1. What are Carbohydrates? <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">- molecules always made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 respectively; (CH2O)n <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">(an example à <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;"> glucose C6H12O6 *glucose is a HEXOSE sugar due to having 6 (hex) carbons in it) <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">*note that if a carbohydrate has five or more carbons in it, it will take on a ring-shaped molecular structure in water, otherwise it is linear
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Summary/notes **

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">- monosaccarides (single sugar) can be bonded together via condensation reaction to form more complex sugars <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">- polysaccarides (many sugars) refer to chains of many saccharides <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">*note that if the saccharide chain is 2-3 saccharides long it can be referred to as an oligosaccharide <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">(an example of a polysaccaride à <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;"> starch; made up of amyose + amylopetin…humans make a starch called glycogen!)
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">2. Saccharides **

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">- carbs are the body’s preferred source of energy; they are most easily broken down and used by the body (short term energy) <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">- can be stored as glycogen in humans (it can also be turned into fat) <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">- provides structure; ie. In plants, cellulose is made of carbohydrates; chitin that makes up crustacean shells is also made of carbs <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">- cell surface markers à <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;"> glycocalyx <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">- fibre is a carb! (soluble fibre helps you digest better; insoluble fibre helps clean the digestive system)
 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">3. Functions and Use **


 * <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">Related diagrams/links/videos **

^ Glucose. Times Three. Note that the lower left is the ring-shaped glucose in water.

September 12 notes by Kate (this is a good example for you to follow! Let me know if you have any questions!)

1. The chemical properties of water lend it several characteristics that make it biologically important. 2. The biologically important organic molecules are called the macromolecules. Polar: contains two ends, one positively charged and one negatively charged Cohesion: the attraction of a molecule to other molecules of the same type Adhesion: the attraction of a molecule to other molecules of a different type Organic: molecules that contain carbon, a part of the structure of living things 1. Water –water is polar due to the difference in electronegativity between hydrogen and oxygen—oxygen “wants” electrons more and pulls them closer, creating a slightly negative charge on the oxygen and slightly positive charge on the hydrogen -this polarity means that water is an excellent solvent, which is important for dissolving salts, proteins, sugars, etc. in blood and cells -water “clings” adhesively and cohesively—this allows it to move upwards in the vascular systems of plants, moving against gravity -water is able to absorb a lot of heat before changing temperature—our body temperatures are able to stay relatively constant despite changes in the environment or our activity levels -ice floats—water forms a lattice and expands when it freezes, and therefore ice floats on top of water. With liquid water underneath, aquatic life is able to survive winter. Sea life is also able to evolve, because it isn’t all killed off every year J
 * Biology 59 Class Notes **
 * Date: **** Tuesday, September 13, 2011 **
 * Unit: Biochemistry **
 * Topic: 1. Water 2. Macromolecules **
 * Textbook reference: 1. p. 16, 18-19 2. p. 27-28 **
 * Main idea **
 * Vocabulary/definitions **
 * Summary/notes **

2. Macromolecules -organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, and often O, N, and P -C is a great central element because it can form 4 covalent bonds -the four key types of organic molecules are the macromolecules, and these are polymers of smaller subunits, called monomers -the four macromolecules are: carbohydrates (monosaccharides), proteins (amino acids), nucleic acids (nucleotides), and lipids ex. triacylglycerol (glycerol and fatty acids)

Frozen water, lined up to make a lattice with as many H-bonds as possible (from [])
 * Related diagrams/links/videos **

Triacylglycerol (because this might be new to you)

(from []