Metabolic+processes+notes

=Photosynthesis Review Day - November 8, 2011= Today we played a few review games in class to prepare for the big test tomorrow on photosynthesis! So I have attached a few videos that will help explain photosynthesis.
 * sorry its late, I completely forgot!

Light Dependant Reactions: http://youtu.be/BK_cjd6Evcw Photosynthesis: http://youtu.be/HrMka8vj73U Calvin Cycle: http://youtu.be/_NIhg1qa_L0

And here's a little comparison of cellular respiration and photosynthesis

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/photosynthesis-and-cellular-respiration.html

=PHOTOSYNTHESIS REVIEW DAY answer key to practice test: = = = =Thursday, November 3, 2011= By Erind Alushaj

Class Time was given to work on the Pigment Lab that is due **Monday.**
 * Pigment Lab Work Period and Factors Affecting Rate of Photosynthesis**

1. Define and explain net gas exchange. 2. 3 factors: light intensity, oxygen gas concentration, and temperature 3. For each be able to draw/ label the graph and provide 2-3 sentences of explanation. = = =** Metabolic Process 2 Review **= pg. 191 1, 3-8, 10-18 pg. 192 1-4, 6-9, 11, 12, 16
 * Textbook Reference: pg 173-175**
 * Factors Affecting Rate of Photosynthesis**

=Wednesday, November 2, 2011= By Erind Alushaj


 * Pigment Lab Prelab Quiz**

1. What is the equation for rate of flow? Rf = Distance travelled by pigment / Distance travelled by solvent 2. Other than cholorphyll, what pigments do you expect to see in this lab? Xanthophyll or Carotene 3. What is the source of chlorophyll in this lab? Spinach leaves.

Materials - 1-2 spinach leaves -pencil - tack - safety glasses - ruler - developing solvent - test tube - filter paper - stopper
 * Pigment Lab**
 * Part A: Spinach Chromatography**

Procedure

1. Prepare a chromatogram by cutting filter paper into a strip and attaching it to a rubber stopper. Make the end of the strip pointed and avoid transferring oils from your hands to the paper. 2. Draw a pencil line 2 cm from the bottom and make a thin line grass stain with the spinach leaves below the pencil line. 3. Place the paper into the test tube with the solvent (acetone). *Make sure the solvent reaches just below the line on your paper. 4. Leave the test tube upright for 10 minutes and mark the top level of the solvent on the paper after the 10 minutes. 5. Rinse all equipment well.

Materials - mortar and pestle - beaker - filter paper - 10-15 mL of ethanol - 3 spinach leaves - light sources
 * Part B: Chlorophyll Fluorescence**

Procedure

1. Grind dry spinach leaves in 10-15 mL of ethanol. Let the mixture settle for 5 minutes. 2. After 5 minutes filter the ground chlorophyll with a filter and beaker. 3. Shine the overhead light (white light) at the solution in the beaker. Record any fluorescence. 4. Shine the UV light (black light) on the solution in the beaker. Record any fluorescence. 5. Discard beaker contents and clean all materials.


 * The BioGENEius proposals were returned at the end of class.*

= = =Tuesday, November 1, 2011= By Megan

The Calvin Cycle

 * the purpose of this cycle is to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates
 * **Step 1:** C3 Photosynthesis. CO2 is added Ribulose 1,5-biphosphate (RuBP), a 5C molecule (5x3=15) to create 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA), a 3C molecule (15+3=18), (6x3=18) This reaction is catalyzed by Ribulose Biphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase
 * **Step 2:** All six molecules of PGA are phosphorylated by ATP to form six molecules of 1,3 bisphoshoglycerate (BPG)
 * **Step 3:** BPG is reduced by NADPH to form glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P), this then exits the cycle as a final product.
 * **Step 4:** The five molecules of G3P (5x3=15) are rearranged to form three molecules of 5C RuBP (3x5=15).

Overall Equation: **3 RuBP + 3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 5 H2O --> 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+ + G3P + 3 RuBP**


 * Know details about G3P, and the overall equation***

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Student-created notes for the metabolic processes unit by Yi (forgive my writing...)

=__**Monday, October 31, 2011**__=

**Textbook reference: p. 160 - 167**
Today we watched a movie about how people will stick to the beliefs they had before learning a new concept.

For example, people still don't believe carbon dioxide accounts for much of the matter in plants, including Harvard graduates, when it actually does as a reactant of photosynthesis.

//Here is a summary of the questions we took up://

Comparing cyclic and non cyclic:

Cyclic:
 * Only in PSI, 700nm
 * No NADPH is produces, as it doesn't release electrons
 * Electrons become excited as they pass through an electron transport chain
 * Electrons return back to PSI

Non-Cyclic:
 * In both PSI and PSII
 * *BOTH cyclic and non-cyclic produce ATP by chemiosmosis,* but only non-cyclic produces NADPH
 * Plants can survive off this alone as opposed to cyclic

Oxygen is released as a by-product of light reactions. It comes from water.

Other links: A song describing non-cyclic electron flow to the tune of Taylor Swift's Love Song

=__**OCTOBER 28th, 2011**__= Notes by Melissa Quinn On October 28th, we went on a field trip to the University of Toronto. We were privileged to attend an event where two researchers who had just received the Gairdner Award were talking to a large group of high school students, our class included. The Gairdner Foundation is the overseer of the prestigious Canada Gairdner Award for contributions to medical science and research. The Canada Gairdner International Awards are given annually to people who have who have made important and outstanding discoveries to medical science. A high percentage of people who have won Gairdner Awards have gone on to win the Noble Prize.

The first researcher Adrian Peter Bird won the Gairdner award for his discoveries on DNA methylation and its role in gene expression. He described his academic journey and how he became so involved in science. He chose the blue sky research method, meaning he chose to research what he liked and what interested him, without a specific purpose. By doing this he came to the realization that he really enjoyed genetics, and focused on it throughout his research. His research focused on the basic biology of DNA methylation. He discovered proteins that read the DNA methylation signal to influence the chromatin structure. A mutation is in one of these proteins called, MeCP2, which causes an autism spectrum disorder called the Rett Syndrome, which can be a very serious and sad condition for young girls. Dr. Bird was able to create a model of how all of this worked with a mouse, and how Rett syndrome could potentially be cured. Overall he made a very significant discovery.

The second researcher, Dr. Black chose to focus his research on child mortality rates in the developing world due to diarrhea and malnutrition. He made a huge scientific breakthrough having to do with how Zinc can in fact help cure and prevent diarrhea, which can be very sever and sometimes lead to death. Dr. Black has dedicated his life to preventing the death of young children in the developing world, such as pneumonia, malnutrition, diarrhea which kill millions every year. He has lived in many countries all over the world conduction research and has made a huge impact in health sciences.

After listening to the Gairdner award winners speak, we had a break for lunch and then had a tour of a yeast lab at UofT. This was very interesting because we were able to see numerous pieces of equipment that are able to analyze and copy DNA. We saw how yeast can be grown and how things can be grown inside of it. We were able to talk to many different research scientists, and they told us about what they were currently working on. It was a great experience because we were able to get an idea of what a research scientists does and see if maybe we wanted to be one, one day. Finally it was great to be at UofT all day because some people may be thinking of going to that University next year. Overall it was a very fun trip for everyone!

A link about one of the winners, Adrian Peter Bird []

A link about one of the winners, Dr.Black []

=__**October 27, 2011**__=
 * By Megan Reid**


 * **Cyclic** || **Non-Cyclic** ||
 * < * Flow of photon energized electrons from water to NADPH+
 * Produces NADPH+ and ATP ||< * Flow of photon energized electrons from the Photosystem I
 * Produces ATP only ||
 * Main difference is that electrons return to Photosystem I in cyclic, and plants cannot live off of cyclic alone, only non-cyclic.**


 * Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis which comes from water.

Some good information on photosynthesis:

[]

A fun video displaying the Light-Dependent stages of Photosynthesis:

[]

=__**October 24, 2011**__= By:Paramveer Singh =Topic: **Photosynthesis Intro (Pg 138-145)**= Read Section 3.1


 * Chlorophyll:** A bluish-green (chlorophyll A) / Yellow-Green (Chlorophyll B) pigment found inside chloroplasts that begins the process of photosynthesis
 * Chloroplast:** A membrane-bound cell organelle (Plastid) that carries out photosynthesis. Composed of stoma (inner protein-filled semi-liquid) and thylakoids (site of ETC and store water).



Opening and slosing of that stoma depends on the changes in the environmental conditions. When K+ ions move into guard cells (due to diffusion) from epidermal cells water moves with it by osmosis, causing the guard cell to swell and expand outwards (Stoma opens). The same also applies when K+ ions diffuse out of the cells; water follows it (osmosis) causing the guard cells to shrink and the stoma to close. Pg 145 Q1. (a) Lettuce- Autotroph, Rabbit & Wolf> Heterotrophs (b) The lettuce needs sunlight to carry out photosynthesis and produce carbohydrates such as glucose, whereas the others need it to stay warm and to indirectly survive by eating the other organisms such as lettuce.

Q3.(a) The cyanobacterium was protected from external harsh environments and the eukaryotic host obtained food molecules from the bacterium. (b) Because they both contain Chloroplasts and share the same type of chlorophyll. Chloroplasts have their own DNA and divide by fission.

Q4. (a) It increases the surface area for photosynthesis and decreases the distance that gases need to travel to reach chloroplasts. (b) Red or yellow depending on the pigment that is the next most abundant in number (c) It increases CO2 intake while effectively limiting water loss. Stomata allow CO2 to diffuse into the air spaces within the leaf's mesophyll layers, where most of the chloroplasts are located. (e) Sunlight stimulates the proton pumps in the guard cells to to drive protons out of the cell and take in K+ ions (followed by water), and vice-versa at night.

Notes by Rachael Kitchen
 * __ October 18, 2011 __**

//Part 1:// Lab – Anaerobic Respiration and Muscle Fatigue
 * DUE:** Thursday, October 27, 2011

//Part 2:// Finish up ETC


 * __ Where does each ATP come from? __**

2 ATP -- 2ATP 2 NADH ---2 FADH2 -- 4 ATP
 * Glycolysis**

2 NADH --- 6 ATP
 * Pyruvate Oxidation**

2 ATP -- 2ATP 6 NADH --- 18 ATP 2 FADH2 -- 4 ATP
 * Krebs Cycle**


 * TOTAL** 36 ATP

__October 17, 2011 notes by Rejy __


 * Biology 59 Class Notes **
 * Date: Monday, October 17, 2011 **
 * Unit: Cellular Respiration **
 * Topic: ETC & Chemiosmosis **
 * Textbook reference: p.103-108 **


 * Main idea **

The final stage of cellular respiration is called the Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis. Electrons are transported throughout protein complexes in the mitochondria’s inner membrane until it reaches the terminal acceptor, oxygen, and ATP synthesis takes place. This is an oxidative phosphorylation (series of redox reactions).


 * Vocabulary/definitions **

ETC- Electron Transport Chain oxidation- gain of electrons electrochemical gradient– a concentration gradient created by pumping ions into a space surrounded by a membrane that is impermeable to ions (a difference in concentration as well as charge_ proton motive force –a force that moves protons through an ATP synthase complex because of the electrochemical gradient of protons across a biological membrane


 * Summary/notes **

–reduced NADH/FADH2 coenzymes transfer their H atom electrons to a chain of protein complex in the inner membrane of the mitochondria -complexes arranged in order of increasing electronegativity -series of redox reactions -energy released in e- transfer is used to pump out H+ atoms to intermembrane space and create an electrochemical gradient <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">-Oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor

<span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Step1: NADH gives 2e- to NADH dehydrogenase, H+ ion pumped out <span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">ox. <span style="color: red; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">red. <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Step 2: NADH dehydrogenase gives 2e- to ubiquinone (Q), a mobile electron carrier <span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">ox. <span style="color: red; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">red. <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Step 3: Q gives 2 e- to Cytochrome b-c1 complex, H+ ion pumped out <span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">ox. <span style="color: red; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">red. <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Step 4: Cytochrome b-c1 gives 2e- to cytochrome C complex, a mobile electron carrier <span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">ox. <span style="color: red; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">red. <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Step 5: Cytochrome C gives 2 e- to Cytochrome Oxidase complex, H+ ion pumped out <span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">ox. <span style="color: red; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">red. <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Step 6: <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Cytochrome oxidase complex combines 4e-, an oxygen atom and 2 protons to create H2Omolecule <span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">ox. <span style="color: red; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">red. (terminal e- acceptor)

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">-For NADH, 3 H+ ions are pumped out <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">-For FAD, 2 H+ ions are pumped out, because NADH dehydrogenase step is bypassed <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">-ETC is step by step because the small reactions (a)release less heat and (b) create more useful energy that allows protons to be pumped out (H+) <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">-H+ atoms pumped out by ETC creates an electrochemical gradient <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">-Protons that accumulate in the intermembrane space diffuse back through proton motive force <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">-The energy of H+ atoms through protein associated with ATP synthase drives ATP synthesis from ADP +P­i <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">-Overall, 32 ATP produced (1 per H+ ion pumped out)


 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Garamond,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Related diagrams/links/videos **

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October 14, 2011 Notes by Rachael Kitchen
 * __ The Krebs Cycle __**


 * __ Agenda: __**
 * Quick review
 * Went over yesterdays lecture and homework assigned
 * Videos
 * NAD+: []
 * The Krebs Cycle: []
 * Lecture – The Krebs Cycle (Stage 3)
 * Handout given
 * Homework
 * Find where carbons went by reading pg 103 (Fill out bottom of note)
 * Page 115: answer questions 1-4, 6, 9


 * __ Lecture: __**
 * Aerobic Cellular Respiration Stage Three: The Krebs Cycle**
 * Has 8 steps
 * Each step is catalysed by a specific enzyme
 * Is a cycle, so one of the initial reactants is also a product
 * Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and starts with Acetyl-CoA


 * Steps:**
 * 1) Acetyl-CoA (2C) combines with Oxaloacetate (4C) to make Citrate (6C)
 * 2) Isomerization of Citrate (6C) to Isocitrate (6C)
 * 3) Isocitrate (6C) loses a C as CO2 to form α-Ketoglutarate (5C). Isocitrate also loses tow H atoms, which reduce NAD+ to NADH and H+.
 * 4) α-Ketoglutarate (5C) is converted to Succinyl-CoA (4C). CoA is added, CO2 is removed, and two H atoms are removed to reduce NAD+ to NADH and H+.
 * 5) Succinyl-CoA (4C) is converted to Succinate (4C) as CoA is released and displaced by a phosphate group from the matrix. This is then transferred to Guanosine Diphosphate which donates its phosphate group to ADP to form ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
 * 6) Succinate (4C) is oxidized by FAD, which is reduced to FADH2 to form Fumarate (4C).
 * 7) A water molecule is added to help convert Fumarate (4C) to Malate (4C).
 * 8) Malate (4C) is oxidized by NAD+ which is reduced to NADH to form Oxaloacetate (4C) which is then ready to combine with Acetyl-CoA again to repeat the cycle (this cycle occurs twice per molecule of Glucose).

1. Overall input and output:
 * What you need to know about the Krebs Cycle:**
 * Input
 * 1 Acetyl-CoA
 * 3 NAD+
 * 1 FADH2
 * 1 H2O
 * 1 ADP
 * Output
 * 2 CO2
 * 3 NADH + 3 H+
 * 1 FADH2
 * 1 ATP

2. Start and End Molecule:
 * Oxaloacetate

3. Any ‘Side Reactions’: How many ATP are formed; and how many NADH, FADH2, CO2, and water used: Formed: Used:
 * 2 ATP
 * 6 NADH
 * 2 FADH2
 * 4 CO2
 * 2 H2O

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Thursday, October 13, 2011 <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Mbita

**<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Cellular Respiration - Stage one: Glycolysis **
<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- Glycolysis means "breaking sugar" so we start with one 6C molecule and end with two 3C molecules <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- It's the first step in both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration
 * __<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">What do I need to know? __**

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">1. __//Overall equation for glycolysis//__ <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD(+) --> 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2H(+)

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">2. __//Initial reactant and final product//__ <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Initially: ATP phosphorylates glucose to produce G6P (glucose 6-phosphate) <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">At the end: PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate) is a) converted to pyruvate and b) a phosphate group on PEP phosphorylates ADP to ATP

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">3. __//Location//__ <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">cytoplasm

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">4. //__Reactions that produce ATP (names and short forms) - steps 7 & 10__// <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- BPG (1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate) is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate. ADP picks up a phosphate group from BPG and forms **ATP.** <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- 2-phosphoglycerate is converted to PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate) by removal of H2O molec.; PEP is a) converted to pyruvate and b) a phosphate group on PEP phosphorylates ADP to <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">**ATP.**

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">5. __//Net yields//__ <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">ATP: 4 made, 2 used so net = 2ATP <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">NADH: 2 produced

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">6. __//Energy Investment vs. Energy Yielding//__ <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">**Energy investment:** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">steps 1-5 <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;"><span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">ends with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) and two 3C chains <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">2 ATP used <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">O ATP produced <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">O NADH produced <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">**Energy yielding:** steps 6-10 <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">ends with 2 pyruvate <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif;">O ATP used <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;"> 4 ATP produced <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">2 NADH produced

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- No ATP is made
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- **<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">The pyruvate produced in glycolysis is transported through a membrane protein across the mitochondrial membrane

__**<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">What do I need to know? **__

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">1. __//Overall equation//__ <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">2 pyruvate + 2 NAD(+) + 2 CoA --> 2 CO2 + 2 acetyl-CoA + 2 NADH + 2H(+)

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">2. __//Location//__ <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">mitochondrial matrix

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">3. __//acetyl-CoA specifics//__ <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- vitamin B5 derivative (pantothenic acid) <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- unstable and will be further oxidized in the Krebs Cycle <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- central molecule in metabolism <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- almost all molecules that are catabolized for energy are converted to acetyl-CoA (like carbs, lipids, proteins) <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- multifunctional: can used to produce fatty acids or ATP <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">- if the body doesn't need energy, acetyl-CoA stores large amounts of energy as fat (why we gain weight)




 * Date: Wednesday, October 12, 2011**
 * Cellular Respiration Overview **
 * by: Allie Martino**


 * Living things must harness energy from other sources**

Self feeders (autotrophs/ producers)

Other feeders (heterotrophs)
 * Get energy from other sources
 * Glucose is their main source of energy
 * Glucose is oxidized though a series of reactions
 * Oxygen is reduced
 * Aerobic cellular respiration
 * The process of harvesting energy from organic compounds using oxygen
 * Exergonic à release of energy happens, products are more stable then reactants


 * There are three main goals of cellular respiration**

Break
 * Break the C-C bonds of glucose
 * Result in the 6CO2

Move
 * Move H atoms from glucose to oxygen (move electrons to produce work)
 * Produce 6H2O molecules
 * Oxygen in H2O come from atmospheric oxygen

Trap
 * 1) Trap free energy (in the form of ATP)

Aerobic Cellular Respiration has four stages:

1.Glycolysis (breaking sugar) 2.Pyruvate oxidation 3. Krebs cycle 4. ETC (electron transport chain) and chemiosmosis
 * Will occur with or without oxygen
 * Needs oxygen
 * Needs oxygen
 * Needs oxygen


 * Enzymes and Cellular Respiration**

Enzymes vs. Combustion
 * Enzymes allow reaction to occur at body temperature
 * Combustion occurs at much higher temperatures
 * Enzymes allow similar reactions to occur as combustion
 * Enzymes lower activation energy
 * Products the same as combustion are:
 * CO2
 * H20
 * Heat

Anaerobic Respiration
 * Oxygen: terminal electron acceptor
 * Obligated anaerobes (clostridium botulinum): when an organism is obligated to live without oxygen
 * Facultative anaerobes (Escherichia coli): can live with or without oxygen

Memorize overall equation Read pgs. 90-93 Complete pg.93 #’s 1-4
 * Homework**


 * Locations for Cellular Respiration **

Stage 1: happens in the cytoplasm when glucose is in it Stage 2: happens in the mitochondrial matrix Stage 3: happens in the mitochondrial matrix Stage 4: happens in the inner membrane of mitochondria


 * There are two ways to form ATP**

1. Direct way: substrate-level phosphorylation, enzyme catalyzed
 * ATD becomes ATP

2. Indirect way: oxidative phosphorylation
 * ATP is formed by
 * A series of redox reactions
 * Oxygen is the final electron acceptor
 * Produces a lot more ATP then substrate-level phosphorylation


 * Coenzymes involved in cellular respiration**

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
 * Reduced to NADH with the help of dehydrogenase (enzyme)
 * Dehydrogenase takes 2 H atoms from glucose and gives then to NAD+ to produce NADH, other H dissolves in the cytoplasm
 * Derivitative of vitamin B3

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
 * Reduced to form NADH2
 * Only seen in the Kerbs cycle


 * Both used to shuttle electrons from the hydrogen ions

Read pgs.94-96
 * Homework**

**Class notes by Mbita**

 * Date: Thursday, October 6, 2011**

__**Cellular Processes - Vocabulary**__
//Homework: read pgs. 58-68, p.68 #2,3,4//
 * 1) __//Reduction://__ the process of gaining electrons in a chemical reaction
 * 2) __//Anabolic://__ formation of large molecules through bonding subunits
 * 3) __//Oxidizing agent://__ reactant that causes another reactant to lose electrons; gets reduced
 * 4) __//Catabolic://__ reaction where a large molecule is broken into smaller subunits
 * 5) __//Oxidation://__ the process of losing electrons in a redox reaction
 * 6) __//Endergonic://__ product has more energy than reactant
 * 7) //__1st law of thermodynamics:__// energy is neither created nor destroyed, only converted from one form to another; the total energy in the universe is constant
 * 8) __//Exergonic://__ reactant has more energy than product; energy is released (doesn't necessarily have to be heat energy)
 * 9) //__Reducing agent:__// reactant that causes another reactant to gain electrons; gets oxidized
 * 10) __//2nd law of thermodynamics://__ changes tend to result in more disorder when a reaction occurs
 * 11) __//Phosphorylation://__ process of adding a phosphate group to an organic molecule
 * 12) __//Bond energy://__ amount of energy between two molecules
 * 13) // __Metabolism:__ // chemical processes that occur in living organisms or cells that are necessary for life; sum of all anabolic and catabolic processes